Professional Autonomy as an Advanced Clinical Practitioner Free Essay Example, 2500 words

Professional Autonomy as an Advanced Clinical Practitioner Introduction The role an advanced clinical practitioner plays in the society today is everpresent and ever felt as the needs and demands of the community grow and vary. Service and professionalism are principal values that must be upheld constantly. It thus becomes imperative to advance the knowledge and medical skills of the clinical practitioner to cater to the specific needs of the patient and different situations that will be confronted. It is thus the aim of this paper to show the importance of advancing the education of clinical practitioners. This paper shall also demonstrate how the health promotion will be further pursued and advanced through education of the patients by the competent and capable health care professionals. Health Promotion / Education in Clinical Setting The trend to be advocated today is to promote health through the proper education of the primary health care providers and the patients as well. To respond to the need of the patients, it is best to improve first the skills, competence and independence of the nurse practitioners caring for them. This is the professional autonomy of the advanced clinical practitioners that pertain to their capability to work and serve the patients without depending on the instructions or supervisions of the physician (Dueker et al. , 2005). We will write a custom essay sample on Professional Autonomy as an Advanced Clinical Practitioner or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now The degree of this professional autonomy may vary depending on what policies a given locality may have. There could be certain areas in the clinical setting where substantial regulations are imposed on the authority of the nurse practitioners. For example in United States, some states have granted nurse practitioners the authority to prescribe medications of certain controlled substances (Pearson, 1998). Such responsibilities and tasks show how dynamic and comprehensive a nurse practitioner must be. Evolution of the Culture of Nursing The culture of nursing has evolved through the years. Nursing people probably existed from the time that people started getting sick. However, traditionally, people think of nurses as the ones who help and follow the instructions of the doctor to implement the treatment of the patient. They also are the ones who do the actual caring and assistance to the patients. Such are very noble acts and they still hold true today. However, there is a more dynamic point to things now (Dueker et al. 2005). Today, the nurturing provided by advanced clinical practitioners goes beyond the usual or traditional notion of their roles in health care.

Taking a Look at Oxidative Stress - 1059 Words

Oxidative stress is one of the most important stimuli that initiates CCl4 mediated liver damage. Lipid peroxidation as result of oxidative stress is well known to be involved in the liver injury (Lin et al., 2012). There are a number of studies that has reported the alkynated halogen CCl4 to be widely used as a hepatotoxin to induce liver toxicity in experimental animal models (Weber et al., 2003). Analysis of histopathology revealed that intragastric administration of CCl4 causes damage to the hepatic architecture, as CCl4 is metabolized in the cytochrome P450 mixed oxygenase system found in the endoplasmic reticulum of liver cells and extra hepatic tissues (Fang et al., 2008). CYP2E1 is a major cytochorme found to be involved in carbon-chlorine bond reductive cleavage and biotransformation of CCl4 to trichloromethyl radical (CCl3†¢). These cytochrome systems catalyze many reactions involved in drug metabolism and synthesis of cholesterol and other lipid metabolites both in endogenous substrates, such as ethanol and acetone as well as exogenous substrates which includes carbon tetrachloride (Tang et al., 2013). In the presence of oxygen, CCl3†¢ generates the highly reactive metabolites such as trichloromethyl peroxy (CCl3OO†¢) free radicals which covalently bind to the cellular macromolecules, lipids and polyunsaturated fatty acids in the cellular membrane. Trichloromethyl peroxy (CCl3OO†¢) free radicals react with suitable substrates to complete its electron pair. CCl3OO†¢ isShow MoreRelatedAntioxidants And Its Effects On Health1460 Words   |  6 Pagesthe supplement industry? If you are interested in the answer to any of these questions and more just stick around, I promise your time will be well spent. 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Human Resource Development

Question : Discuss about the Human Resource Development ? Answer : Introduction Human resource management is an effective way through which an organization can increase employee performance. It is primary concerned with increasing the people efficiency within the organization and focus on creating an effective system inside an organization. HR is concerned with providing with creating the best opportunities for the employees in order to provide them with a strategic benefit. It is however concerned with managing organizational change in response to the environment in order to balance the requirements as per the collective bargaining power and governmental law. It is the duty of the human resource department to organize the training and development of employees in accordance with the companys standard[1]. The purpose of the report is to understand the necessity of training and development of the employees at workplace in order to increase capabilities. The report provides vision of company to provide management development programme. The purpose of the program is to develop an innovative approach among the employees. It is completely understood that the companies under the global competition need to outperform. It has become a pivotal part for an organization to develop such human resource policies so that they can attain a desired market position. Purpose of an effective training and development program is to effectively manage the employees. This will help in creating an effective work environment[2]. Acorn is an award-winning recruitment and training organization making an annual turnover of 100m. The company places approximately 5500 permanent employees every year. It is known as a famous regional recruiter and development agency delivering effective training to employees. They have dedicated 30 HR professional providing training to 3000 personnel every year. They have a strong market reputation in developing employees through there management development program. The program is made according to the requirement of their clients in order to provide with an advantage against the other competitors. The report is based on developing the skills of the top level personnel to meet the changing trend in the resort management. The challenge is to practically manage the organization through evolving different business skills[3]. The report envisages the procedure to meet requirements of the client in order to meet the changing business needs. The purpose of development program is to measure the achievements by developing a comprehensive training and development program. The whole process includes four meetings and four training programs over a period of two months. Programme objective The objective of the program is to provide senior managers with an essential training for developing operational teams so that they can achieve long term sustainable goals. Senior managers will provide training to the other employee who in return will help in creating a sustainable market position. The whole program will be designed keeping in mind the needs of the market. It is the necessity to develop the training programme as per the market in order to give a quick response to the growing market needs[4]. There is a necessity to identify the ongoing training requirements in order to develop the middle level management. The ongoing training and development program is focused on creating needs of the organization by simulating the market growth[5]. The purpose is to focus on the development program in order to support the corporate culture that will help in attracting and retaining new employees. Training structure need to be comprehensive that help in structuring the necessities of the business[6]. The programme needs to be tailored according to the demanding schedule and work environment in order to accommodate the requirements. The main focus of the programme is to develop the employee according to the competitive requirements. The current market is very aggressive and there is a need to develop the programs according to the competitors[7]. Significance of assessing training needs The Assessment of training and development programme should be methodical and comprehensive in nature. An organization has to upgrade its training and development procedure in order to remain competitive. There is a necessity to develop training and development programme on the basis of latest technology in order to manage the job. Employees who are moving up in the ladder need to get a proper training to develop managerial and leadership skills training and development helps in managing the organization. In the given case study Acorn needs to develop a comprehensive training and development programme in order to meet the basic requirements[8]. Once the training needs are identified the Human resource department needs to prepare a required checklist in order to meet the needs. This will however provide with an effective tools to manage the employees on the basis of the skills they have. Development of the matrix would ensure that the plan regarding the training structure in a well de fined manner. There is a necessity to identify the specific needs pertaining to the current competitive market. The purpose is to make the managers accustomed to the different needs that are associated with the organization. The construction of matrix will help in analyzing the gap in between the current and required situation[9]. Training needs should be finalized in accordance with the training structure in order to focus upon the whole process. The matrix needs to be utilized in accordance with the compatibility with the organizational goals. There are many discussions that are related with the cultural gap in the organization. Training programme is selected in accordance with the organizational needs. There is a necessity to train all the employees about the organizational policies in making the requisite changes. Human resource function is to provide a symmetric procedure in order to assimilate the requirements in accordance with the culture in which they are working. Training is one of the basic functions in an organization and it is important to develop an effective procedure so that the employees can give maximum attention to the problem. The alignment of the training programme should be in accordance with the mission of the organization[10]. Training methods and techniques help in ensuring a set of new skills and learning procedure. The senior manager needs to be trained in accordance with the consistency with the technical and soft skills[11]. The current training program ensure that the senior manager therefore receive an effective work knowledge through management development program. Training methods include different types of tools that help in guaranteeing effective result. It is an effective procedure for the trainer to use various different types of tools that will help in guaranteeing effective results. The experimental training development program needs to be person centric focusing upon the distinguished requirements[12]. The training struc ture will therefore enable the managers to effectively manage the changes occurring in an organization and to cope up with the conflict. This will moreover help in enabling team to motivate each other in order to solve problems. The skills of an individual are directly converted into a practical experience which will help in attaining results. The purpose of the program is to enable long-term career path which will ensure success in different venture. It is necessary to understand that by investing on the senior personnel the company will effectively attain good results[13]. The purpose of the whole programme is to attain significant result. The purpose is to train the employees in case of arraigning the organizational goals. The corporate objectives of the business can only be attained by focusing on the goals[14]. Developing an improvised human resource management plan is to attain the objectives by creating procedural goals. The participants in the programme will learn organizational strategic plan that contributes toward an effective plan. The training programme explains the current and future challenges pertaining to the human resource. The purpose of the programme is to train the employees in executing their duties. For individual it helps in building human resource knowledge that help in planning and development procedure[15]. It is necessary to understand how the human resource planning will effectively create a positive impact on the organizational culture. Senior manager will identify their role in human resource planning and their role in managing the situation in accordance with the organizational strategy[16]. It helps in assessing the performance management in order to understand the role of all the employees working in the organization. Moreover this technique of human resource de velopment will ensure that the HR planning will effectively contributes toward the organizational strategy. Individuals will learn the process in which the gap in between the current and future human resource management can be managed[17]. For an organization the training and development programme will create a better understanding in order to gain competitiveness. The senior manager has to manage various roles in the organization. He is the one who has to provide guidelines to the lower level management. In this case it is essential to provide an effective training so that the employees can attain desired results within the requisite time-period. He has to integrate the human resource planning in order to improvise the overall business strategies. They need to improvise the techniques in according to the generic needs that help in organizing the training and development programs. This will guarantee that the employees will effectively work in order to produce effective results.[18] Training and development programme is effectively helping them in executing the policies in a better and effective manner. The senior personnel will gain competitiveness against different objects. This will help them in becoming responsible personnel in allocating his duty. The purpose of Acorn is to imbibe effective human resource programme so that the organization can attain effective results. Training and development has become one of the important tools that need to be implemented by the employees in order to derive progressive result. The training program needs to be developed keeping in mind the organizational structure so that the employees are ready to focus on individual goals as well[19]. Overall training programme involve 12 modules that last for a day. End of the module help in understanding the key behavior of an individual in the organization. This will however help in evaluating the performance of an individual. This programme will help the managers to effectively contribute towards the problem by contributing effectively. Relevant theories It is proposed that the Personal Styles Questionnaires need to be given in order to understand the necessity of the whole training program. By filling the forms one can understand the requirements that need to be filled in order to continue the human resource planning. This will help in understanding the preference of the managers. The training program will be developed according to the need of the organization. Personal style questionnaire helps in identifying the issues. Purpose of an effective training and development program is to effectively manage the employees. This will help the organization to develop effective plan in order to attain objectives. The matrix needs to be utilized in accordance with the compatibility with the organizational goals. There are many discussions that are related with the cultural gap in the organization. Training programme is selected in accordance with the organizational needs[20]. AMO Theory This theory is based on the three components (Ability, Motivation and Objectives). Thus it helps in creating a better understanding among the employees. This theory is developing performance of employees by focusing on them. This theory aims to create a proper understanding among the employees that guarantees focus on their job in an effectual manner. The purpose of the training program is to motivate the employees so that they can give effective result. For an organization the training and development programme will create a better understanding in order to gain competitiveness. The purpose of training is to increase their ability to adopt the adverse situations. The employees can attain effective result in the situation when they are more ready to adopt the changes. These training programmes increase their ability to fight against adverse culture. They get an ability to understand the competitiveness rising in the surrounding. Effective training and development programme creates a competitive edge. Senior managers will provide training to the other employee who in return will help in creating a sustainable market position[21]. The main focus of the programme is to develop the employee according to the competitive requirements. In the given scenario, making effective recommendations according to the present need is necessay. The current training program ensure that the senior manager therefore receive an effective work knowledge through management development program. The purpose of the management development programme is to provide managers with a proper training so that they can combat against the changes occurring in the surroundings[22]. Alderfers ERG Theory This theory is based on the Maslow theory which focuses on existence, relatedness and growth. The needs of an individual are material in nature that needs to be managed effectively. The social need include the interpersonal relationship among the people and the developmental needs are related to person development and psychological growth. In a distinguished atmosphere it has become important to develop a proper training programme in order to meet the desired needs. The alignment of the training programme should be in accordance with the mission of the organization. . Employees who are moving up in the ladder need to get a proper training to develop managerial and leadership skills training and development helps in managing the organization. The necessity related to the training and development is necessary in order to meet the psychological growth[23]. Recommendation In order to establish an effective training and development programme it is necessary to ensure that the employees are contributing towards the organizational goals. It is the duty of the managers to drive the organization towards attainment of group results. Training and development programme need to be developed according to the employees so that they can meet the future challenges. Training and development programme need to increase the capability of the employees so that they can become more productive for the organization. In todays competitive scenario it has become necessary to provide effective training so that the employees can adjust in a different business atmosphere. The employees therefore need to understand the requirement of such programme. The employer needs to make an effective investment on the employees so that they can understand the various work culture. In the diversified economy it has become important for an organization to adapt themselves towards the growing changes[24]. Those who do not understand the changes lack in making a difference on the coming generation. In the recent time it is seen that people are getting accustomed to the changing needs. They have a better understanding in generating business opportunities according to the surrounding. It is highly recommended that the training and development programme need to be implemented for a longer time period. This will however help in understanding the situation of the employees and the culture. They will be adhered to give an effective result if provided with an effective training and development programme[25]. Employees need to understand that the overall employee development is only possible through consistent training programme. Outsourcing the training and development programme will therefore reduce the burden on the organization to meet the growing needs. They can focus on their inner capacities. Moreover the organization can only develop effectively if they are more concrete towards development of the effective work environment. Large size business organization needs to implement more training and development programme so that they can understand the situation arising in the organization. Acorn understands that there is a necessity to focus on developing a proper an effective environment by providing senior managers with the on-the-job training. Implementation of an effective training and development structure will somehow allow the organization to give multi-fold result. It is however necessary for an organization to sustain against the growing competition occurring in the surrounding. It develops inner capabilities of the employees and allows them to grow more efficiently in a cohesive business environment. It is not easy for an organization to implement policies in a day but the training and development programmes create an effective situation through which the employees can grow more efficiently. Technique of human resource development will ensure that the HR planning will effectively contributes toward the organizational strategy. The job design and structure need to be implemented in a manner which promotes effective growth in an organization[26]. Making a right investment at the right time is the necessity of a training and development programme. Most of the employer is making an investment towards the training and development programmes so that the employees can achieve desired result. These training and development programmes help in enhancing the overall productivity in an organization. There is a necessity to revamp and improve the learning structure in an organization so that the employees can give effective result. It is recommended that the senior managers need to ignite the passion in the employees. There duty is to develop the employees in an effective manner so that they can give good results. In the complex work environment the employees can produce results so that they can organize the work environment. It is the duty of the senior manager to promote the interest of the employees working in the organization so that they outperform. These programmes add value by developing knowledge and skills in few months. Managers are overbu rdened with responsibilities in order to manage the organization. This provides them with an opportunity to teach the employees with the career development of the subordinates. The development and growth process in an organization plays a vital role in managing the organization in order to attain long lasting result. This will simultaneously help in increasing the cost efficiencies providing progressive results [27]It is necessary that the organization should provide with a flexible learning programme as it will engage more employees in the organization. The company will respond efficiently towards the problem arising out of any such situation. Creating team and providing them with proper training will create an adjustable atmosphere to attain effective result. Employees can understand their role in the organization. This will however help in learning efficiently. It is however necessary for an organization to develop according t the growing culture. When an organization develops according to the surrounding it will provide them with more diversified opportunities to grow. Employees can outperform in such a situation. They can understand there surrounding efficiently[28]. It is recommended that the business organization must allocate a budget for the purpose to attain better results. It is a pre-requisite in every organization in order to develop efficiently. Employees can grow if the organization has focused all the resources on developing more result oriented mechanism. In a diversified business environment employees can only perform efficiently if they are more focused towards there responsibilities. Creating more awareness about the project and by disclosing the overall procedure will help the organization to attain significant result[29]. Lastly it is more significant that the organization need to implement the growth strategies that are more human centric. This will help in simulating the effectiveness in the organization by helping them to create a better training and development plan. . It is necessary to understand how the human resource planning will effectively create a positive impact on the organizational culture. Creating efficiency at the workplace will create a better atmosphere in reference to the future needs. Conclusion The report includes the entire necessary plan to implement a successful job design for the senior managers in order to compete against the competitors. It is seen in the business environment that the organization can grow multifold if proper training is given to the employees. Most importantly the employees need to focus on developing an effective plan so that the employees can understand the importance of planning and development in the environment. Employees can implement better understanding if they have developed a better training structure. It is necessary objective in an organization that the employees must focus on developing more effective goal oriented policies. Overall training programme involve 12 modules that last for a day. End of the module help in understanding the key behavior of an individual in the organization. The purpose of the training and development programme is to create competent employees. These employees will adopt the situation according to the change in the environment. In a multinational organization it is a necessity to inculcate training and development programme regularly so that the employees can incorporate such programmes more effectively in their daily schedule. The program is made according to the requirement of their clients in order to provide with an advantage against the other competitors[30]. The report is based on developing the skills of the top level personnel to meet the changing trend in the resort management. The management has to provide effective training to the low level manager so that they can incorporate the changes in an effective manner. He has to integrate the human resource planning in order to improvise the overall business strategies. They need to improvise the techniques in according to the generic needs that help in organizing the training and development programs. The role can effectively be carried forward if the manager performs his duty more carefully. References Abdullah, H., "Major challenges to the effective management of human resource training and development activities."The Journal of International Social Research2, no. 8 (2009): 11-25. Armstrong, M., and Stephen T.,Armstrong's handbook of human resource management practice. Kogan Page Publishers, 2014. Boxall, P, and John,P.,Strategy and human resource management. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011 Bratton, J., and Jeff G.,Human resource management: theory and practice. Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. Caulton,J., "The development and use of the theory of erg: A literature review."Emerging Leadership Journeys5, no. 1 (2012): 2-8. Dowling, P.International human resource management: Managing people in a multinational context. Cengage Learning, 2008. Hendry, C., Human resource management, Routledge, 2012. Jehanzeb, K. and Nadeem B., "Training and development program and its benefits to employee and organization: A conceptual study."Training and Development5, no. 2 (2013). Joy-Matthews, Jennifer, David M., and Mark S.,Human resource development. Kogan Page Publishers, 2004. Kozlowski, S., and Eduardo S.,Learning, training, and development in organizations. Taylor Francis, 2009. McGuire, D.,Human resource development. Sage, 2014. Olaniyan, D. A., and Lucas B. Ojo. "Staff training and development: a vital tool for organisational effectiveness."European Journal of Scientific Research24, no. 3 (2008): 326-331. Ortmeier, P., and Edwin M.Leadership, ethics, and policing: Challenges for the 21st century. Prentice Hall, 2010. Paauwe, J., "HRM and performance: Achievements, methodological issues and prospects."Journal of Management studies46, no. 1 (2009): 129-142. Raymond A., John H., Barry G., and Patrick, W. Fundamentals of human resource management. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2007. Richard,O.., and Nancy J., "Strategic human resource management effectiveness and firm performance."International Journal of Human Resource Management12, no. 2 (2001): 299-310. Schuler, Randall S., and Susan J.,Strategic human resource management. John Wiley Sons, 2008. Srinath, K. "Human resource development." 2003. Storey, John.Human resource management: A critical text. Cengage Learning EMEA, 2007. Truss, C., David M., and Clare K.,Strategic human resource management. Oxford University Press, 2012. Werner, J. and Randy S.,Human resource development. Cengage Learning, 2011. [1] Hendry, C., Human resource management, Routledge, 2012. [2] Boxall, P, and John,P.,Strategy and human resource management. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011 [3] Raymond A., John H., Barry G., and Patrick, W. Fundamentals of human resource management. Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill/Irwin, 2007. [4] Dowling, P.International human resource management: Managing people in a multinational context. Cengage Learning, 2008. [5] Bratton, J., and Jeff G.,Human resource management: theory and practice. Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. [6] Schuler, Randall S., and Susan J.,Strategic human resource management. John Wiley Sons, 2008. [7] Harzing, A, and Ashly .,International human resource management. Sage, 2010. [8] Sparrow, P.,Chris B., and Chul C.,Globalizing human resource management. Routledge, 2016. [9] Bakker, A. and Michael L.,Work engagement: A handbook of essential theory and research. Psychology Press, 2010. [10] Jehanzeb, K. and Nadeem B., "Training and development program and its benefits to employee and organization: A conceptual study."Training and Development5, no. 2 (2013). [11] Olaniyan, D. A., and Lucas B. Ojo. "Staff training and development: a vital tool for organisational effectiveness."European Journal of Scientific Research24, no. 3 (2008): 326-331. [12] Kozlowski, S., and Eduardo S.,Learning, training, and development in organizations. Taylor Francis, 2009. [13] Abdullah, H., "Major challenges to the effective management of human resource training and development activities."The Journal of International Social Research2, no. 8 (2009): 11-25. [14] Storey, John.Human resource management: A critical text. Cengage Learning EMEA, 2007. [15] Armstrong, M., and Stephen T.,Armstrong's handbook of human resource management practice. Kogan Page Publishers, 2014. [16] Bratton, J., and Jeff G.,Human resource management: theory and practice. Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. [17] Boxall, P., and John P., Strategy and human resource management. Palgrave Macmillan, 2011. [18] Schuler, R., and Susan J.,Strategic human resource management. John Wiley Sons, 2008. [19] Werner, J., and Randy D.,Human resource development. Cengage Learning, 2011. [20] Daley, M. "Strategic human resource management."Public Personnel Management(2012): 120-125. [21] Armstrong, M., and Stephen T.,Armstrong's handbook of human resource management practice. Kogan Page Publishers, 2014. [22] Paauwe, J., "HRM and performance: Achievements, methodological issues and prospects."nRecommendationbsp;Journal of Management studies46, no. 1 (2009): 129-142. [23] Caulton,J., "The development and use of the theory of erg: A literature review."Emerging Leadership Journeys5, no. 1 (2012): 2-8. [24] Ortmeier, P., and Edwin M.Leadership, ethics, and policing: Challenges for the 21st century. Prentice Hall, 2010. [25] Truss, C., David M., and Clare K.,Strategic human resource management. Oxford University Press, 2012. [26] Richard,O.., and Nancy J., "Strategic human resource management effectiveness and firm performance."International Journal of Human Resource Management12, no. 2 (2001): 299-310. [27] Werner, J. and Randy S.,Human resource development. Cengage Learning, 2011. [28] Joy-Matthews, Jennifer, David M., and Mark S.,Human resource development. Kogan Page Publishers, 2004. [29] Srinath, K. "Human resource development." 2003. [30] McGuire, D.,Human resource development. Sage, 2014.

The Debate of Interracial Marriages and the Unseen Barriers of Relationships Essay Example Essay Example

The Debate of Interracial Marriages and the Unseen Barriers of Relationships Essay Example Paper The Debate of Interracial Marriages and the Unseen Barriers of Relationships Essay Introduction The Debate of Interracial Marriages and the Unseen Barriers of Relationships 1 For decades, interracial relationships have been a deep seated conflict among many people and families in our history. Not only in the United States, but many countries around the world have debated and banned such acts. Although it has now been found to be unconstitutional based on the violation of the fourteenth amendment, societal perceptions, norms, and hate groups have still managed to persist. We as a country have come a long way in the past fifty years by recognizing the injustice in banning and punishing certain marriages, but there is still a definite stigma and an abundance of prejudice, resentment, and negative reactions attached to those who are involved in an interracial relationship. Studies have shown that as recently as 1991, 42% of respondents said that they still disapprove of interracial marriage (About). Further studies done by Bramlett and Mosher in 2002 had found that by the tenth yea r of marriage, 41% of interracial couples had divorced compared to 31% of same-race couples. In the years of 1985 to 1989, an astonishing 55% had ended (Bratter King, p. 160). One tends to wonder if these rates are higher because of the outside factors and people that are against these couples, or if this could be a reason that so many people are against the concept of interracial marriage. Some have hypothesized that interracial marriage â€Å"selects on† those persons that are already likely to divorce because of certain personal characteristics. The Debate of Interracial Marriages and the Unseen Barriers of Relationships Essay Body Paragraphs Yet another explanation states that â€Å"these marriages potentially unite persons from differing interpersonal styles, and varying values attached to marriage and family. Therefore, maintaining that relationship may be more difficult† eventually ending them in divorce (Bratter King, p. 161-62). Many other theories have been conceived about what it is that tends to lead these couples toward divorce more than others; we will go over a few of 2 them. Up until 1967 with the case of Loving versus Virginia, sixteen states in the United States had laws prohibiting interracial marriage between a white and olored person. Just as it is made known through these previous laws addressing only black and white marriages, those relationships that consist of an African American and a white are still seen as the most controversial in America (About). A Ford poll from 2003 surveyed 1,314 Americans which resulted in three in ten participants expressing disagreement with black and white interma rriage. However, they were â€Å"more willing to accept white-Hispanic or white-Asian marriages†(About). The hypotheses for these attitudes were related to economic prosperity, skin color, and history of economic hardship. It is hard to determine exactly why these feelings are so strong. Many saw interracial couples as violating the â€Å"goodness of fit† belief, that these people were less likely to be compatible (Lewandowski, p. 289) and also â€Å"loss of racial caste privilege†, mostly for whites (Bratter Eschbach, p. 1029). So what do these statistics and attitudes imply for interracial couples of today? Research shows that interracial marriages have an amplified risk of marital disillusionment. Many of the previously mentioned attitudes have been shown to increase this high divorce rate, but many more theories will be explored further throughout this paper. Because of so many varying attitudes about the topic of interracial marriage, many people that are in these relationships find themselves knowing a friend or family member that disagrees with their beliefs and way of life with an interracial partner. Bratter and King say that â€Å"the negative reactions to interracial couples from strangers and 3 the diminished social support from family and friends generally characterize the experience of Black/White couples† (p. 62). These couples will many times avoid community activities because of feared racism and also have a harder time integrating into larger family/social networks. One example would be a white female partner dating a black man. She may be less equipped for dealing with the negative reactions toward her black partner and also may be disliked by black females because she is seen as a threat to their own marriage prospects and also said to be unfit to â€Å"raise and nurture her punitively non-white offspring†. These types of experiences and attitudes lead many Black/white couples to isolate from their commun ities to rotect themselves (Bratter King, p. 170). As one can see, when social support is lacking it can lead to couples’ isolation. Isolation in turn can lead to other psychological issues and problems between the couple making arguments and distress much easier to come by. One could almost say that at least outside of the direct home of the couple, negativity seems to be lurking on all sides of them. It would be easy to see how divorce may sometimes seem like the most logical or conceivable solution to these stresses. It is clear that negative reactions from family as well as from society and also outsider beliefs are aspects that can contribute to stress and negative marital dynamics, yet there are still other variables like background/values, age, and psychological distress that was just touched on briefly. In the past, interracial relationships were seen by many as a psychological flaw or disorder in the person involved; someone who had low self esteem, self-loathing, d eep psychological sicknesses, and inferiority issues. These attitudes put even more of a 4 negative impression on interracial couplings and the people that participated in them. However, after many new studies, we have seen that these views have been backward. People involved in interracial relationships have a very unique bag of issues compared to same race couples. Many can be or feel abandoned and rejected by their own community because they are viewed as â€Å"‘selling out’- abandoning their race rather than embracing their race as a valued characteristic in themselves and others†(Lewandowski, p. 01). Instead of seeing them as finding someone they love regardless of color it seems that a racial spin always has to be put into the picture. There is also an underlying resentment in many African American females when their men marry outside of their race because they see this as a threat to their own personal marital opportunities and is also felt as a negative r eflection of their personal self worth (Childs, p. 558). Also, as mentioned earlier, isolation is a common trait for interracial couples. Whether because of family disapproval, society prejudice, or just irrational beliefs, social isolation can be very damaging to individuals as well as a couple with no outlets. â€Å"Both recent and classical scholarship predict that among all married persons, those in interracial relationships are more likely to experience conditions that create psychological distress relative to their same race counterparts with a same race partner† (Brater Eschbach, p. 1028). Now that new research has been given a chance, society can see that rather than assuming that there is some underlying psychological issue in those that partake in interracial relationships, but that lack in support, isolation, negativity, and attitudes from outsiders can lead to psychological distress. Therefore, the previously thought â€Å"cause† is now a possible effect. Stress in relationships without the proper support and outlets can easily lead to tense 5 marital situations and lead to what may seem like the only logical escape; divorce. When looking at a general risk of divorce for any couple, age has seemed to play an important role. This is also relevant for interracial marriages, if not more so, as you will see. Marriage at a younger age has shown to be a large characteristic of many divorced couples. â€Å"Of all predictors of divorce, age at marriage is the most well established and most consistently predictive, regardless of time period when the marriage began† (Bratter King, p. 161-62). Studies done by Bramlett and Mosher have estimated that there is a dramatic increase in divorce rates, over 20%, between those who marry before the wife turns 18 years of age and those who marry after the age of 25 years. This is worth mentioning when researching the explanation behind such high divorce rates among interracial couples because hist orically, specifically those African Americans that marry outside of their race have tended to marry at a younger age than if they were to marry someone inside of their race (Bratter King, p. 62). African American/White relationships are mentioned specifically because these tend to be the most controversial marriage because of such social distance and also the least likely to succeed (Childs, p. 544). Although this cannot be named the sole reason for such high divorce rates among these couples, it can possibly be a starting point to explain some of the different dynamics that go on inside of these relationships. Stress from outside sources have definitely decreased over the last decades for interracial couples, but from news and studies we can tell that it is not completely abolished like the previous marital bans have been. Just look at Bob Jones University in South Carolina. Even up into the twenty first century, this school was blatantly 6 prohibiting interracial relationships o n their campus by way of threats of expulsion (About). Unfortunately these types of scenarios will most likely continue on through the years and may continue to carry on the discrepancy of divorce rates between couples of same and different race marriages. Although divorce rates for interracial marriages are significantly higher than their same race counterparts, there are many differing and unique qualities and dynamics that need to be factored in when examining the reasons behind it. There is no single cause and it most likely cannot be chalked up to â€Å"different skin color†. The perceptions, attitudes, treatment, support (and lack of), values, and backgrounds of individuals in the relationship and of those interacting with the couple, all contribute to the environment that they are in and surrounded by on a daily basis. The way that these things impact the interracial couple will also play out into their own marital relationship once they are at home. Seeing as though m any times these outside forces are very negative, one would guess that the relationship would also take a turn in that direction. Many of these mentioned theories and dynamics contribute to the high divorce rate among interracial couples in America, although many more aspects most likely add to this problem. 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